ROAD TRANSPORTATION
ASSIGNMENT NO: 1
ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED TO
Prof.JAIMOHAN NAIR
ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED BY
JISHA.K.R
IMK-ICM
POOJAPURA
ROAD TRANSPORTATION
INTRODUCTION
India has an extensive network of major and minor roads as well as a good number of well maintained networks of national highways connecting all major cities. The network figures some 3.32 million km that includes national high ways, state high ways, and district road and rural road. The length of national highways in the country is 65,569 presently. There are 259 national high ways on the basis of their route numbers.
Road carry about 70% of freight traffic , 85% of passenger traffic in the country, national highways carry about 40% of vehicular traffic in the country. Traffic on the road
is growing 7% to 10% per annum.The roadways provide transportation to millions of people every day. However vast section of country’s road network, especially in rural area are still in process of development. The government of India has been continuously developing the linking roads between major cities. The minor roads in villages and small towns across the country are also in a process of development. Transportation can be roughly grouped into two categories; transportation of goods and transportation of people. In many countries licensing requirement and safety regulations ensure a separation of the two industries.
The nature of goods transportation depends, apart from the degree of development of local infrastructure, on the distance the goods are transported by road, the weight and volume of the individual shipment and the type of goods transported. For the short distance and light, small shipment a van may be used. For large shipments truck is appropriate. People are transported on roads either in individual cars or automobiles or in mass Transit/public transport by bus. Special modes of individual transport by road like rickshaws are locally available.
HISTORY OF ROAD TRANSPORTAION
The first method of road transportation was oxen or even human beings carrying goods over a track. As commerce increased tracks over flattened or widened to accommodate the activities .Later a frame was used to drag loads was developed. The wheel came still later probably preceded by use of logs as rollers.
During the industrial revolution and because of increased commerce that came with it improved roadways became imperative. The problem was rain combined with dirt roads became commerce-miring mud .JOHN LOUDEN MC ADAM designed first modern high ways. He developed inexpensive Paving material of soil and stone aggregate, and he embanked roads a few feet higher than the surrounding terrain to cause water to drain away from the surface. At the same time, Thomas Telford, made substantial advances in the engineering of new roads and the construction of bridges, particularly, the London to Holyhead road.
Various systems had been developed over centuries to reduce bogging and dust in cities, including cobblestones and wooden paving. Tar-bound macadam (tarma various systems had been developed over centuries to reduce bogging and dust in cities, including cobblestones and wooden paving. Tar-bound macadam (tarmac) was applied to macadam roads towards the end of the 19th century in cities such as Paris. In the early 20th century tarmac and concrete paving were extended into the countryside.
MODERN ROADS
Today roads are principally asphalt or concrete.Asphalt is known as flexible pavement. one which slowly will "flow" under the pounding of traffic. Concrete is a rigid pavement, which can take heavier loads but is more expensive and requires more carefully prepared sub base. So, generally, major roads are concrete and local roads are asphalt. Often concrete roads are covered with a thin layer of asphalt to create a wearing surface.
Modern pavements are designed for heavier vehicle loads and faster speeds, requiring thicker slabs and deeper subbase. Subbase is the layer or successive layers of stone, gravel and sand supporting the pavement. It is needed to spread out the slab load bearing on the underlying soil and to conduct away any water getting under the slabs. Water will undermine a pavement over time, so much of pavement and pavement joint design are meant to minimize the amount of water getting and staying under the slabs.Shoulders are also an integral part of highway design. They are multipurpose; they can provide a margin of side clearance, a refuge for incapacitated vehicles, an emergency lane, and parking space. They also serve a design purpose, and that is to prevent water from percolating into the soil near the main pavement's edge. Shoulder pavement is designed to a lower standard than the pavement in the traveled way and won't hold up as well to traffic. (Which is why driving on the shoulder is generally prohibited.)
Pavement technology is still evolving, albeit in not easily noticed increments. For instance, chemical additives in the pavement mix make the pavement more weather instance, chemical additives in the pavement mix make the pavement more weather hydroplanning, instance, chemical additives in the pavement mix make pavement more weather traffic control. Nearly all roadways are built with devices meant to control traffic. Most notable to the motorist are those meant to communicate directly with the driver.
Broadly, these fall into three categories: signs, signals or pavement markings. They help the driver navigate; they assign the right-of-way at intersections ; assign the right-of-way at intersections as speed limits and parking regulations; they advise of potential hazards; they indicate passing and no passing zones; and otherwise deliver information and to assure traffic is orderly and safe.
200 years ago these devices were signs, nearly all informal. In the late 19th century signals began to appear in the biggest cities at a few highly congested intersections. They were manually operated, and consisted of semaphores, flags or padles or in some cases colored electric lights, all modeled on railroad signals. In the 20th century signals were automated, at first with electromechanical devices and later with computers. Signals can be quite sophisticated: with vehicle sensors embedded in the pavement, the signal can control and choreograph the turning movements of heavy traffic in the most complex at a few highly congested intersections. They were manually operated, and consisted of semaphores, flags of intersections. In the 1920s traffic engineers learned how to coordinate signals along a thoroughfare to increase its speeds and volumes. In the 1980s, with computers, similar coordination of whole networks became possible. In the 1920s pavement markings were introduced. Initially they were used to indicate the road’s centerline. Soon after they were coded with information to aid motorists in passing safely.
Later, with multi-lane roads they were used to define lanes. Other uses, such as indicating permitted turning movements and pedestrian crossings soon followed.In the 20th century traffic control devices were standardized. Before then every locality decided on what its devices would look like and where they would be applied. This could be confusing, especially to traffic from outside the locality. In the United States standardization was first taken at the state level, and late in the century at the federal level. Each country has a Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and there are efforts to blend them into a worldwide standard.
PNEUMATIC TIRES
As the horse-drawn carriage was replaced by the car and lorry or truck, and speeds increased, the need for smoother roads and less vertical displacement became more apparent, and pneumatic tires were developed to decrease the apparent roughness. Wagon and carriage wheels, made of wood, had a tire in the form of an iron strip that kept the wheel from wearing out quickly. Pneumatic tires, which had a larger footprint than iron tires, also were less likely to get bogged down in the mud on unpaved roads.
MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION
• BUSES
Buses are very cheap in most cities but also very crowded and have unpredictable timings, frequently necessitating long waits. In the big cities and towns of India, buses are the major mode of transport. Luxury and air-conditioned buses also service some cities. Most means of transportation within cities is run by the government. Buses are categorized, based upon the number of seats, the time it takes to travel from A to B, and general comfort. Express and limited buses are usually more expensive options compared to the normal ones, the latter being increasingly modern whilst cheap and easily accessible.
• VANS
Vans or Mini-Buses is a more prevalent form of transportation especially in remote areas and common route with consistent yet small transportation needs. Not to mention it's presence in other cities, where it is often a traffice menace.
• AUTORICKSHAWS
An auto rickshaw (auto or rickshaw or tempo in popular parlance) is a three-wheeler vehicle for hire. They typically have no doors or seatbelts. They are generally yellow or green in colour and have a black canopy on the top. An auto rickshaw is generally characterized by a tin/iron body resting on three small wheels (one in front, two on the rear), a small cabin for the driver in the front and seating for three in the rear. Their design varies considerably from place to place. In some locations, they have an extra plank on the seat to accommodate a fourth passenger. Hiring an auto often involves bargaining with the driver.
• TWO WHEELERS
Two wheelers are the most popular mode of transport in terms of number of vehicles. There are two main types of powered two-wheelers, the motor scooter and the motorcycle. The scooter was first built in post-war Italy as a two-wheeler with small wheels (supposedly to utilize war-surplus aircraft tail wheels). It differs from the motorcycle in having the driver seated with his legs together, and is thus favoured by women drivers (assari, a common Indian dress for women, doesn't permit separation of legs). The Italian Vespa scooter was built in India under license by Bajaj Auto, and together with the Italian Lambretta scooter dominated the two-wheeler scene. Much later came the hugely successful Bajaj Chetak scooter, but Bajaj has since lost the market to new entrants like Kinetic Motors. In the past decade, lightweight mini-scooters like the TVS Scooty and the Honda Activa have made it much easier for women to travel.
The post-war years saw the predominance of foreign motorcycles, mainly British ones like Norton, BSA, and Ariel etc. In the 1960s Indian-made bikes like Royal Enfield Bullet (a 350cc British design), Jawa (a 250cc Czech design) and Rajdoot (a 175cc Polish design) predominated. After the beginning of liberalization Indian versions of popular Japanese bikes such as Suzuki, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha hit the roads, leading to motorcycles outstripping scooters in popularity. The overwhelmingly large number of bikes sold have engines 175cc or less.
• CARS
The demand for cars in India is one of the highest in the world. In2002 more than 50,000 new cars were brought in Delhi alone. Compact cars predominate due to low cost. Maruti, Hyundai, Tata Motors and Ford are the most popular brands in the order of their market share. The clunky Ambassador once had a monopoly but is now an icon of pre-liberalization India , and is still used by politicians.Maruti 800 launched in1984 created the first revolution in the Indian auto sector because of its low pricing. It had the highest market share until 2004, when it was overtaken by other low cost models of Maruti and those of foreign entrants like Hyundai. Over the 20 year period since its introduction about 2.4 milion units of Maruti 800 have been sold.
TRADITIONAL MEANS OF TRANSPORT
• TRAMS
The advent of the British saw trams being introduced in many cities including Mumbai and Calcutta . They are still in use in Calcutta and provide a pollution-free means of transportation. The nationalised Calcutta Tram Company has introduced buses on certain routes in order to generate more revenue and reduce losses.
• CYCLE RICKSHAW
Cycle rickshaws were introduced into India in 1920s from the Far East.They are bigger than a tricycle where two people sit on an elevated seat at the back and a person pedals from the front. In the late 2000's, they were banned in several cities for causingtraffic congestion. However, environmentalists have supported the retention of cycle rickshaws as a non-polluting and inexpensive mode of transport.
• HAND PULLED RICKSHAW
This type of transport is still available in Kolkata wherein a person pulls the rickshaw by hand. The Government of West Bengal proposed a ban on these rickshaws in 2005 describing them as "inhuman". Though a bill aiming to address this issue, termed as 'Calcutta Hackney Carriage Bill', was passed by the West Bengal Assembly in 2006, it has not been implemented yet. The Government of West Bengal is working on an amendment of this bill to avoid the loopholes that got exposed when the Hand-pulled Rickshaw Owner's Association filed a petition against the bill.
• BICYCLES
Bicycles are a common mode of travel in much of India. More people can now afford to own a cycle than ever before. In 2005, more than 40% of Indian households owned a bicycle, with ownership rates ranging from around 30% to 70% at the state level. Along with walking, cycling accounts for 50 to 75 % of the commuter trips for those in the informal sector in urban areas.
• BULLOCK CARTS AND HORSE CARRIAGES
Bullock carts have been traditionally used for transport, especially in rural India. The advent of the British saw drastic improvements in the horse carriages which were used for transport since early days. Today, they are used in smaller towns and are referred as tongas or buggies. Victorias of Mumbai are still used for tourist purposes, but horse carriages are now rarely found in India. In recent years some cities have banned the movement of bullock carts and other slow moving vehicles on the main roads.
• PALANQUIN
A palanquin is also known as palkis, were one of the luxurious methods used by the rich and noblemen for travelling. This was primarily used in the olden days to carry a deity or idol of a god, and many temples have sculptures of god being carried in a palki. Later on, it was primarily used by European noblemen and ladies from the upper classes of society prior to the advent of the railways in India. Modern use of the palanquin is limited to being an ostentatious method for the bride to make her entrance at some Indian weddings.
• WALKING
In ancient times, people often covered long distances on foot. For instance, Adi Sankaracharya traveled all over India. Walking still constitutes an important mode of transport in urban areas. In the city of Mumbai to further improve the transit conditions for pedestrians the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authorityhas commenced the construction of more than 50 skywalk as part of the Mumbai Skywalk project.
ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT
The aggregate length of roads, which was 0.4 million kms in 1950-51, has increased eight-fold to 3.32 million kms in 1995-96 but the number of goods vehicle fleet has increased 22-fold from 0.82 lakh to 17.85 lakh in the corresponding period. The national highway network, which carries about 40% of the road traffic, is just a little over 1% of the road network.
Table 1: Growth of Road Network (in 'ooo Kms.)
Category 1951 1996 %AGE Change p.a.
National Highways 19.8(5%) 34.5 (1.04%) 1.24
State Highways 60.0(15%) 135.1 (4.07%) 1.82
Other Roads 318.0(80%) 3150.0 (94.89%) 5.23
Total 400.0(100%) 3319.6 (100%) 4.81
Note: Figures in parentheses are in percentages of total road network.
( Source: Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2000), Volume II)
NHs are less than 2% of the entire network but carry about 40% of the country's traffic. The total road kilometer age has not been growing adequately to meet the demand for speedy and efficient transportation of material traffic.
ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
The economic development of the country and the consequent surge in the demand for transport services, and also the strategic needs of the country necessitated expansion as well as improvement of the road network. The country took up this uphill task in a planned manner.
Recognising the need to develop arterial routes to link the Union capital with the state capitals, major seaports and other highways, the National Highways Act, 1956 was enacted. In 1957, the chief -engineers (road and bridges development) of the Central and the state governments met in Bombay. Having taken into account the size of area, population, regional levels of development and feature potential, the engineers presented a 20-year Road Development Plan (1961-81) in 1958 which is popularly known as the Bombay Plan.
The Plan anticipated an increase in road length from 6. 10 lakh km in 1960 to 10.50 lakh km in 1981. The Plan target was to achieve a density of 32.5 km of roads per 100 sq km of area, 44 km for developed agricultural areas, 19 km for semi-developed and 12 km for underdeveloped areas at an estimated cost of Rs 5,200 crore, including Rs 630 crore for village roads.
The Bombay Plan set a target of 8.88 lakh km of major district roads, order district roads and classified village roads. This target was exceeded in 1978 with the construction of 9.7 lakh km of roads. The target of 98,000 km of state highways could only be achieved a decade later. Of the target of 52,000 km only 34,619 km was achieved till1April, 1997.Another Road Development Plan (1981-2001), known as the Lucknow Plan of the Indian Road Congress, has made a case for 66,000 km of National Highways by 2001 A.D.
The National Transport Policy Committee, set up in 1978 under the chairmanship of B. D. Pandey, submitted its report in May 1980. It recommended 37 roads with a 12,955 km length for inclusion in the National highway network. Out of these, only 11 roads, aggregating 3,595 km length, were completed over a span of one-and-a-half decades.
The Government of India instituted an Asian Development Bank-aided study in February 1990 on Development of Long-Term Plan for Expressways in India. The study was completed in 1991 and it has recommended development of 10020km of expressing by 2015 at an estimate cost of Rs 58,000 crore.
ROAD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
The centrally funded/assisted notable road development programmes started during various Plan periods were: Programme for Roads of Economic and interstate importance launched during the First Plan; Strategic Roads Programme started in 1965; Sensitive Border Area Roads, Hill Area Development, the Western Ghat Development programmes and the Road component of Tribal Sub-Plan, all launched during the Fifth Plan; and Tribal Roads, Special Problem Area Roads and Command Area Development programmes, etc., started during the Sixth Plan.
To encourage private sector participation, the National Highways Act 1956 was amended in 1995 to enable the levy of toll on selected improved sections Of the National Highways. It allows the private sector to participate in construction, maintenance and operation of roads on Build-Operate-and Transfer (BOT) basis. Two projects of bypass, one at Thane-Bhiwandi in Maharashtra and the other at Udaipur in Rajasthan, and one project of road over bridge at Chaltan in Gujarat were awarded on a BOT basis in 1996. These projects involved investments of Rs 17 crore, Rs 24 crore and Rs 10 crore respectively.
HIGHWAYS
India has a well developed network of National Highways connecting all the major cities and state capitals. Most highways are 2 laned, while in some better developed areas they may broaden to 4 lanes. Close to big cities, highways can even be 8 laned. All the highways are metal led. In most developed states the roads are smooth, however in less developed states and in sparsely populated areas, highways are riddled with potholes.Very few of India's highways are concretised, the most notable being the Mumbai-Pune Expressway.
Highways form the economic backbone of the country. Highways have facilitated development along the route and many towns have sprung up along major highways. In recent years construction has commenced on a nationwide system of multi-lane highways, including theGolden Quadrilateral expressways which link the largest cities in
India. A bus serviceSrinagars (India controlled, Jammu and Kashmir) –Muzaffarabad (Pakistan controlled, Azad Kashmir, part of what India callsPoK), with one bus service every two weeks, at the same time in both directions, opened on7 April2005. Length: total - 3,319,644 km; paved - 1,517,077 km; unpaved - 1,802,567 km (1999 est.)
The longest National Highway is NH 7, which goes from Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh to the southernmost tip of India, Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu. It covers a distance of 2369 kms. One of India's very famous highway projects is the Golden Quadrilateral Highway Project, connecting India's four metropolitan cities, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkatta and Chennai.
All national highways are metalled, but very few are constructed of concrete, the most notable being the Mumbai-Pune Expressway. In recent years construction has commenced on a nationwide system of multi-lane highways, including the Golden Quadrilateral and North-South and East-West Corridors which link the largest cities in India. In 2000, around 40% of villages in India lacked access to all-weather roads and remained isolated during the monsoon season. To improve rural connectivity, Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (Prime Minister's Rural Road Program), a project funded by the Central Government with the help of World Bank, was launched in 2000 to build all-weather roads to connect all habitations with a population of 500 or above (250 or above for hilly areas).
NATIONAL HIGHWAY AUTHORITY OF INDIA
Set up in 1989, it started functioning only in February, 1995. It is an autonomous body entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance and operation of the National Highways and other associated facilities vested in the Government of India.
Maintenance:
The maintenance and improvement of roads, though an ongoing programme, has not produced the desired results due to meager allocations. The country’s road network generates large revenues. But the country spends merely 35-40 per cent of this revenue on the improvement and maintenance of roads whereas Japan spends 128 per cent, USA 97 per cent and Germany 82 per cent annually. The National Highways too are facing a similar situation.
The allocations in respect of highways has declined from. 1.5 per cent in the First Plan to 0.57 in the Eighth Plan. External aided projects for improvement of highways started in 1985 with the World Bank assistance and later on with assistance from the Asian Development Bank and the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund.
The increasing road traffic, as the expected freight movement of 28 lakh TEUs on the roads annually during the Eighth Plan period would suggest, and the heavy backlog of maintenance and improvement, have brought the road network to a breaking point. An investment of Rs 52,200 crore is needed to restore the National Highway network alone.
A study in 1994 estimated the annual vehicle operating cost on Indian roads as Rs 100,000 crore (Rs 40,000 crore for National Highways and Rs 60,000 crore for State Roads). The study further revealed that a good road network can reduce this cost by Rs 15,000 crore (National Highways - Rs 6,000 crore and State Roads Rs 9,000 crore). Since the fuel component comprises nearly 15 per cent of this cost, the resultant saving in fuel consumption would be about Rs 2,250 crore per annum (Rs 900 crore on the National Highways and Rs 1,350 crore in State Roads.
Growth Trends
Growth of Road Freight Industry
During the period 1951 to 1994, the average yearly growth of traffic has been of the order of 8 to 10%. (Source: Transport India 2000 Conference Paper) Fig. 2 indicates that freight traffic has increased from 6 billion tones kilometers (BTK) in 1951 to 800 BTK in 1999. Such a rapid growth has occurred mainly owing to the flexibility and accessibility offered by road transportation.
Growth of Vehicular Traffic
Since Independence, the number of motor vehicles in the country has been increasing rapidly. The number of goods vehicles increased from 82,000 in 1950-51 to 17.96 lakh in 1994-95. During the same period, the number of buses increased from 34,000 to 4.25 lakh. The total vehicle population swelled from 3.06 lakh in 1950-51 to nearly 302.87 lakh in 1994-95.
The private sector, mostly unorganized and comprising individual operators, has had a dominant presence in the field of road transportation. It runs almost the entire goods-carrier industry and also owns nearly 73.75 per cent of the buses at present. After the Road Transport Corporation Act 1950 became operational, almost all states and union territories have nationalized passenger transport in varying degrees by setting up corporations. In other cases, these services are operated by municipal corporations or registered companies. At present, the number of such bodies stands at 69 with a fleet strength- of 1,11,538 buses carrying 6.88 crore passengers every day. The Motor Vehicles Act 1988 replaced the Motor Vehicles Act 1939 and introduced far-reaching changes in the road transport sector.
The rapid growth in the number of goods vehicles is indicative of the increased volume of freight handled by road.
Fig.1
Source: Study on Trucking Operations in India- Problems and Potential; Asian Institute of Transport Development)
Fig. 2
Source: Transport India 2000)
Note: Figures for LCV for the years 1995, 1997 N.A.)
The no. of goods vehicles has been steadily increasing; however it is still not sufficient to meet the high demand. The annual growth of trucks during the period 1995-96 has been negative (-6.3%) as indicated in Fig.2 indicating that during this period the growth of other goods vehicles such as LCVs was far more greater, whereas it has sharply increased to 13.5% between 1996-97.
TRAFFIC CONTROL
Nearly all roadways are built with devices meant to control traffic. Most notable to the motorist are those meant to communicate directly with the driver. Broadly, these fall into three categories: signs, signals or pavement markings. They help the driver navigate; they assign the right-of-way at intersections; they indicate laws such as speed limits and parking regulations; they ; advise of potential hazards; they indicate passing and no passing zones; and otherwise deliver information and to assure traffic is orderly and safe.200 years ago these devices were signs, nearly all informal.
In the late 19th century signals began to appear in the biggest cities at a few highly congested intersections. They were manually operated, and consisted of semaphores, flags or paddles, or in some cases colored electric lights, all modeled on railroad signals. In the 20th century signals were automated, at first with electromechanical devices and later with computers. Signals can be quite sophisticated: with vehicle sensors embedded in the pavement, the signal can control and choreograph the turning movements of heavy traffic in the most complex of intersections. In the 1920s traffic engineers learned how to coordinate signals along a thoroughfare to increase its speeds and volumes. In the 1980s, with computers, similar coordination of whole networks became possible.In the 1920s pavement markings were introduced. Initially they were used to indicate the road’s centerline. Soon after they were coded with information to aid motorists in passing safely. Later, with multi-lane roads they were used to define lanes. Other uses, such as indicating permitted turning movements and pedestrian crossings soon followed.
In the 20th century traffic control devices were standardized. Before then every locality decided on what its devices would look like and where they would be applied. This could be confusing, especially to traffic from outside the locality. In the United States standardization was first taken at the state level and late in century at the federal level. Each country has a Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and there are efforts to blend them into a worldwide standard.
Besides signals signs and markings, other forms of traffic control are designed and built into the roadway. For instance, curbs and rumble strips can be used to keep traffic in a given lane and median barriers can prevent left turns and even U-TURNS.
Indian Road Freight Industry
Organised Vs. Unorganised Sector
Fig 3.
The road freight industry stands out unique with the majority of the market share held by the unorganized sector. Out of the entire market size of approximately Rs. 38,000 crores, Rs 6000 crores is with the organized sector and the remaining with the unorganized sector. Fig. 3 indicates that organized sector has only a miniscule 14%share of the total road freight transportation industry.
CONCLUSION
Even though 70% of emissions are due to road transportation, it plays a vital role by transporting people, goods and thereby develops tourism. it is the cheapest mode of transport. But still in rural areas road facilities are to be developed further. Minor village roads are in development process.
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